State Elections in United States
State Campaigns and Elections
William D. Hicks and Daniel A. Smith, in the chapter “State Campaigns and Elections” of the Oxford Handbook of State and Local Government, offers some insight and critically assesses the situation and current state of scholarship on the topic. The following is a summary: This chapter examines the literature on state campaigns and elections. Throughout the chapter the authors focus on a central question that frequently animates the study of campaigns and elections in the American states: do political institutions enhance or stymie voter turnout and electoral competition? They begin by considering studies that examine how electoral laws in general may affect voter turnout, electoral competition, and party and candidate strategies. They then assess whether more stringent campaign contribution limits and clean election laws might provide a greater incentive for potential candidates to challenge incumbents. In turn, they explore how primary systems, redistricting, term limits, and direct democracy may affect competition and turnout in the American states. They conclude with a discussion about lingering concerns over endogeneity when it comes to measuring the effect of political institutions on electoral competition and outcomes.
State Electoral Vote Distribution
The number of electoral votes allotted each state is equal to the number of representatives and senators that represent that state in Congress. This is in turn determined by a census count of all persons in the United States every ten years (i.e. each numbered year ending in a zero). Adjustments to a state’s congressional delegation, and thus its number of electoral votes, occur in the following election. Therefore, redistricting from the 2000 census will not affect congressional elections until the year 2002 and will not affect a presidential election until 2004.
| State | 1930 | 1940 | 1950 | 1960 | 1970 | 1980 | 1990 | 20001 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alabama | 11 | 11 | 11 | 10 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 |
| Alaska | – | – | 32 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 |
| Arizona | 3 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 10 |
| Arkansas | 9 | 9 | 8 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 |
| California | 22 | 25 | 32 | 40 | 45 | 47 | 54 | 54 |
| Colorado | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 8 | 9 |
| Connecticut | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 7 |
| Delaware | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 |
| District of Columbia | – | – | – | 33 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 |
| Florida | 7 | 8 | 10 | 14 | 17 | 21 | 25 | 26 |
| Georgia | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 13 | 15 |
| Hawaii | – | – | 32 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 |
| Idaho | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 |
| Illinois | 29 | 28 | 27 | 26 | 26 | 24 | 22 | 21 |
| Indiana | 14 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 12 | 12 | 12 |
| Iowa | 11 | 10 | 10 | 9 | 8 | 8 | 7 | 7 |
| Kansas | 9 | 8 | 8 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 6 |
| Kentucky | 11 | 11 | 10 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 8 | 8 |
| Louisiana | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 9 | 9 |
| Maine | 5 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 |
| Maryland | 8 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 |
| Massachusetts | 17 | 16 | 16 | 14 | 14 | 13 | 12 | 12 |
| Michigan | 19 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 21 | 20 | 18 | 17 |
| Minnesota | 11 | 11 | 11 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 |
| Mississippi | 9 | 9 | 8 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 6 |
| Missouri | 15 | 15 | 13 | 12 | 12 | 11 | 11 | 11 |
| Montana | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 4 |
| Nebraska | 7 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 |
| Nevada | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 5 |
| New Hampshire | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 |
| New Jersey | 16 | 16 | 16 | 17 | 17 | 16 | 15 | 15 |
| New Mexico | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 5 |
| New York | 47 | 47 | 45 | 43 | 41 | 36 | 33 | 31 |
| North Carolina | 13 | 14 | 14 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 14 | 14 |
| North Dakota | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 |
| Ohio | 26 | 25 | 25 | 26 | 25 | 23 | 21 | 20 |
| Oklahoma | 11 | 10 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 7 |
| Oregon | 5 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 7 |
| Pennsylvania | 36 | 35 | 32 | 29 | 27 | 25 | 23 | 21 |
| Rhode Island | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 |
| South Carolina | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 |
| South Dakota | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 3 |
| Tennessee | 11 | 12 | 11 | 11 | 10 | 11 | 11 | 11 |
| Texas | 23 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 29 | 32 | 34 |
| Utah | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 6 |
| Vermont | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 |
| Virginia | 11 | 11 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 13 | 13 |
| Washington | 8 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 11 |
| West Virginia | 8 | 8 | 8 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 5 |
| Wisconsin | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 10 |
| Wyoming | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 |
1. Estimated using present population trends. 2. added after admission. 3. added after passage of the 23rd amendment to the Constitution.
Further Reading
- “State Campaigns and Elections”, The Oxford Handbook of American Politics
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