Racial Discrimination in the United States

Racial Discrimination and the Legislation

United States Constitution

According to the Encyclopedia of the American Constitution, about its article titled “RACIAL DISCRIMINATION”, the United States was founded with the enslavement of blacks as an established and ongoing institution, and though we were not particularly proud of the institution, we were prepared to live with it. The Constitution did not mention the word “slave,” and contemplated the eventual… (read more about Constitutional law entries here). It adds that, in “the mid-1980s, most observers would have said that the Supreme Court’s view of racial discrimination was in equipoise. Some of the Justices seemed sympathetic to the aggressive purposeful use of racial criteria to end the legacy of racial subordination”.

Racial Discrimination in Laundries

by Thomas L. Libby.

On May 10, 1886, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously found that the San Francisco Board of Supervisors had administered in a racially discriminatory fashion a city ordinance requiring laundries to obtain fire safety permits.

San Francisco passed a health and safety ordinance in 1880 requiring that all laundries in wooden buildings get the board’s approval for the safety permits and operating licenses. Of the city’s 320 laundries, 310 were constructed of wood, and 240 of those were Chinese owned. However, all of the Chinese applicants were denied safety permits, while only one non-Chinese applicant was turned down.

Although Yick Wo had lawfully operated his laundry for 22 years before the new ordinance took effect, he was arrested in 1885 by Sheriff Peter Hopkins for refusing to pay a $10 fine for operating the business without a license. He was jailed one day for each dollar of the fine and the case was raised on a habeas corpus writ.

After the California Supreme Court found that the city’s supervisors had acted within the scope of their authority, the case was taken to the U.S. Supreme Court on a writ of certiorari.

Famously stating that the San Francisco law had been applied “with an evil eye and an unequal hand,” (Yick Wo v. Hopkins, Sheriff, 118 U.S. 356 (1886)), the high court’s ruling established two precedents: that discriminatory enforcement of a facially neutral law violates the equal protection clause of the Constitution’s 14th Amendment, and also that the clause protects all persons and not just citizens.

Racial Discrimination (Fair Housing Rights)

This section introduces, discusses and describes the basics of racial discrimination. Then, cross references and a brief overview about Fair Housing Rights is provided. Finally, the subject of Housing in relation with racial discrimination is examined. Note that a list of cross references, bibliography and other resources appears at the end of this entry.

Racial Discrimination (Voting Rights)

This section introduces, discusses and describes the basics of racial discrimination. Then, cross references and a brief overview about Voting Rights is provided. Finally, the subject of Civil Rights Law in relation with racial discrimination is examined. Note that a list of cross references, bibliography and other resources appears at the end of this entry.

Resources

See Also

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
• Age Discrimination
• Racial Balance
• Jury Discrimination
• Racial Quotas
• Racial Preference
• Benign Racial Classification

Cool Pose in relation to Crime and Race

Cool Pose is included in the Encyclopedia of Race and Crime (1), beginning with: The Black male has been faced with many challenges since his arrival in America. Currently the Black community is in crisis due to poverty, poor education, high unemployment, and increasing morbidity rates. For example, in comparison to their White counterparts, Black males are 6 times more likely to die through violence. Among Black males ages 15 to 24 years old, homicide is the number one cause of death. The legacies of slavery, oppression, and discrimination have forced the Black male to adapt and reinvent himself, and the result has been the cool pose. The cool pose is the creation of an alternate persona that shields Black males against the constant barrage of racial discrimination in American society. On the one hand, it raises self-esteem, and, on the other, it further marginalizes him and may even reinforce negative stereotypes because it is outside the norm and is viewed as unacceptable.

Resources

Notes and References

1. Entry about Cool Pose in the Encyclopedia of Race and Crime

See Also