Crime in United States

Crime Definition

Any act or omission prohibited by public law for the protection of the public, and made punishable by the state in a judicial proceeding in its own name. It is a public wrong, as distinguished from a mere private wrong or injury to an individual. 1 Clark & Marshall, Crimes, § 1. A wrong which the government deems injurious to the public at large, and punishes through a judicial proceeding in its own name. 1 Bish. New Crim. Law, § 32. An act committed or omitted in violation of a public law either forbidding or commanding it. 4 Bl. Comm. 15. This definition has frequently been quoted with approval, but it is inaccurate. In the first place, it is not the act omitted that constitutes a crime, but the omission to act. In the second place, the term public law is too broad, for it includes many other !aws besides those which define and punish crimes. An act is not necessarily a crime because it is prohibited by a public law. To constitute a crime, it must be punished to protect the public, and must be punished by the state or other sovereign. Clark & Marshall, Crimes, § 1. Violations of municipal ordinances are generally held not to be crimes, for the reason that such ordinances are not pubhc laws, and the punishment for their violation is imposed by a less authority than the state. 29 Minn. 445; 36 Ala. 261; 47 Ohio St. 481; 55 Wis. 487. Contra, see 75 Mich. 611; 27 Tex. App. 342. Crime is a generic term, including treason, felonies, and misdemeanors (31 Wis. 383; 75 Mich. 611; 60 111. 168; 42 Minn. 258; 48 Ind. 123), though some earlier writers use the term as excluding misdemeanors (4 Bl. Comm. 5).

Crime in Foreign Legal Encyclopedias

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Crime	Crime in the World Legal Encyclopedia.
Crime	Crime in the European Legal Encyclopedia.
Crime	Crime in the Asian Legal Encyclopedia.
Crime	Crime in the UK Legal Encyclopedia.
Crime	Crime in the Australian Legal Encyclopedia.

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Crime in the Dictionaries	Crime in our legal dictionaries
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Legal Issue for Attorneys

Any act or omission prohibited by public law for the protection of the public, and made punishable by the state in a judicial proceeding in its own name. It is a public wrong, as distinguished from a mere private wrong or injury to an individual. 1 Clark & Marshall, Crimes, § 1. A wrong which the government deems injurious to the public at large, and punishes through a judicial proceeding in its own name. 1 Bish. New Crim. Law, § 32. An act committed or omitted in violation of a public law either forbidding or commanding it. 4 Bl. Comm. 15. This definition has frequently been quoted with approval, but it is inaccurate. In the first place, it is not the act omitted that constitutes a crime, but the omission to act. In the second place, the term public law is too broad, for it includes many other !aws besides those which define and punish crimes. An act is not necessarily a crime because it is prohibited by a public law. To constitute a crime, it must be punished to protect the public, and must be punished by the state or other sovereign. Clark & Marshall, Crimes, § 1. Violations of municipal ordinances are generally held not to be crimes, for the reason that such ordinances are not pubhc laws, and the punishment for their violation is imposed by a less authority than the state. 29 Minn. 445; 36 Ala. 261; 47 Ohio St. 481; 55 Wis. 487. Contra, see 75 Mich. 611; 27 Tex. App. 342. Crime is a generic term, including treason, felonies, and misdemeanors (31 Wis. 383; 75 Mich. 611; 60 111. 168; 42 Minn. 258; 48 Ind. 123), though some earlier writers use the term as excluding misdemeanors (4 Bl. Comm. 5).

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Notice

This definition of Crime is based on The Cyclopedic Law Dictionary. This entry needs to be proofread.

Plain-English Law

Crime as defined by Nolo’s Encyclopedia of Everyday Law (p. 437-455):

A type of behavior that has been defined by the state or federal government as deserving of punishment. The punishment for a crime may include imprisonment.

Practical Information

Note: Some of this information was last updated in 1982

An act that a government regards as injurious to the public. One charged in court with the commission of a crime is prosecuted by the state or federal government, depending on whether the act violates a state or federal criminal statute. In the United States the law of crimes is covered solely by statute. A tort (in U.S. law), on the other hand, is an infringement on the rights of an individual rather than the community as a whole and is prosecuted by the injured party. See also felony (in U.S. law); misdemeanor (in U.S. law).

(Revised by Ann De Vries)

What is Crime?

For a meaning of it, read Crime in the Legal Dictionary here. Browse and search more U.S. and international free legal definitions and legal terms related to Crime.

Basic Meaning of Crime

Crime means: an action in violation of constitution, statues, or ordinances, e.g., treason, felony, misdemeanor.

Resources

See Also

Criminology; Penology; and the biography ofSutherland.

Government statistics; Statistics, descriptive; and the biography ofSutherland.

Punishmentand the biography ofSutherland.

Aggression, article onPsychological aspects; Feud; Suicide.

Abortion ; Drug Trafficking, Illegal ; Federal Bureau of Investigation ; Justice, Department of ; Juvenile Courts ; Mann Act ; Prohibition ; Salem Witch Trials ; Sherman Antitrust Act ; Volstead Act .

Domestic Violence: Fraud and Misrepresentation; Gun Control; Homicide; Prostitution; Violence

Further Reading (Books)

Burt, Cyril L. (1925) 1944 The Young Delinquent. 4th ed. Univ. of London Press.

Clinard, Marshall B.; and Wade, Andrew L. 1958 Toward the Delineation of Vandalism as a Sub-type in Juvenile Delinquency. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 48:493-499.

Cloward, Richard A.; and Ohlin, Lloyd E. 1960 Delinquency and Opportunity: A Theory of Delinquent Gangs. Glencoe, III.: Free Press.

Cohen, Albert K. 1951 Juvenile Delinquency and the Social Structure. Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University.

Cohen, Albert K. (1955) 1963 Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang. New York: Free Press.

Conwell, Chic 1937 The Professional Thief: By a Professional Thief. Annotated and interpreted by Edwin H. Sutherland. Univ. of Chicago Press. _ A paperback edition was published in 1960.

Cressey, Donald R. 1953 Other People’s Money: A Study in the Social Psychology of Embezzlement. Glencoe, III.: Free Press.

Cressey, Donald R. 1960 Epidemiology and Individual Conduct: A Case From Criminology. Pacific Sociological Review 3:47-58.

Glaser, Daniel 1956 Criminality Theories and Behavioral Images. American Journal of Sociology 61: 433-444.

Glueck, Bernard 1918
Concerning Prisoners. Mental Hygiene 2:85-151.

Hakeem, Michael 1958 A Critique of the Psychiatric Approach to Crime and Correction. Law and Contemporary Problems 23:650-682.

Healy, William 1915 The Individual Delinquent: A Text-book of Diagnosis and Prognosis for All Concerned in Understanding Offenders. Boston: Little.

Henry, Andrew F.; and Short, James F. Jr. 1954 Suicide and Homicide: Some Economic, Sociological, and Psychological Aspects of Aggression. Glencoe, III.: Free Press.

Hirsch, Nathaniel D. M. 1937 Dynamic Causes of Juvenile Delinquency. Cambridge, Mass.: Sci-Art Publishers.

Jones, Howard (1956) 1962 Crime and the Penal System: A Textbook of Criminology. 2d ed. London: University Tutorial Press.

Lemert, Edwin M. 1953 An Isolation and Closure Theory of Naive Check Forgery. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 44:296-307.

Lemert, Edwin M. 1958 The Behavior of the Systematic Check Forger. Social Problems 6:141-149.

Merton, Robert K. (1938) 1957 Social Structure and Anomie. Pages 131-160 in Robert K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure. Rev. & enl. ed. Glencoe, III.: Free Press. _ First published in the American Sociological Review.

Merton, Robert K. (1949) 1957 Social Theory and Social Structure. Rev. & enl. ed. Glencoe, III.: Free Press.

Reckless, Walter C. 1943 The Etiology of Delinquent and Criminal Behavior. New York: Social Science Research Council.

Reckless, Walter C. (1950) 1961 The Crime Problem. 3d ed. New York: Appleton.

Reiss, Albert J. Jr. 1951 Delinquency as the Failure of Personal and Social Controls. American Sociological Review 16:196-207.

Schuessler, Karl F.; and Cressey, Donald R. 1950 Personality Characteristics of Criminals. American Journal of Sociology 55:476-484.

Sellin, Thorsten 1938 Culture Conflict and Crime. New York: Social Science Research Council.

Sutherland, Edwin H. (1949) 1961 White Collar Crime. New York: Holt.

Sutherland, Edwin H.; and Cressey, Donald R. 1960 Principles of Criminology. 6th ed. New York: Lippincott. _ E. H. Sutherland was the sole author of the first edition, published in 1924 as a textbook under the title Criminology.

Taft, Donald R. (1942) 1956 Criminology. 2d ed. New York: Macmillan. _ A 4th edition was published in 1964 by Macmillan.

Tolman, Frank L. 1902-1903 The Study of Sociology in Institutions of Learning in the United States. American Journal of Sociology 7:797-838; 8:85-121, 251-272, 531-558.

Vold, George B. 1958 Theoretical Criminology. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

Wolfgang, Marvin E. 1958 Patterns in Criminal Homicide. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.

Further Reading (Articles)

Criminal Statistics of England and WalesAnnual Report. _ Published since 1923.

Reiss, Albert J. JR.; and Rhodes, A. L. 1960 The Distribution of Juvenile Delinquency in the Social Structure. American Sociological Review 25:720-732.

Short, James F. JR.; and Nye, F. Ivan 1957-1958 Reported Behavior as a Criterion of Deviant Behavior. Social Problems 5:207-213.

Sutherland, Edwin H.; and Cressey, Donald R. (1924) 1960 Principles of Criminology. 6th ed. New York: Lippincott. _ First published as a textbook, Criminology, under the sole authorship of Edwin H. Sutherland.

Wilkins, Leslie T. 1963a The Measurement of Crime. British Journal of Criminology 3:321-341.

Wilkins, Leslie T. 1963b What Is Crime? New Society 2, no. 42:15-16.

Wilkins, Leslie T. (1964) 1965 Social Deviance: Social Policy, Action, and Research. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

Further Reading (Articles 2)

Aubert, Vilhelm 1952 White Collar Crime and Social Structure. American Journal of Sociology 58:263-271.

Block, Herbert A.; and GEIS, GILBERT 1962 White-collar Crime. Pages 379-404 in Herbert A. Bloch and Gilbert Geis, Man, Crime, and Society: The Forms of Criminal Behavior. New York: Random House.

Caldwell, Robert G. 1958 A Reexamination of the Concept of White Collar Crime. Federal Probation 22, no. 1:30-36.

Clinard, Marshall B. 1946 Criminological Theories of Violations of Wartime Regulations. American Sociological Review 11:258-270.

Clinard, Marshall B. 1952 The Black Market: A Study of White Collar Crime. New York: Holt.

Clinard, Marshall B. (1957) 1963 Sociology of Deviant Behavior. 2d ed. New York: Holt.

Cressey, Donald R. 1952 Application and Verification of the Differential Association Theory. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 43: 43-52.

Cressey, Donald R. 1953 Other People’s Money: A Study in the Social Psychology of Embezzlement. Glencoe, III.: Free Press.

Cressey, Donald R. 1961 Foreword. In Edwin H. Sutherland, White Collar Crime. New York: Holt.

Fuller, Richard C. 1942 Morals and the Criminal Law. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 32: 624-630. _ Now called the Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science.

Geis, Gilbert 1962 Toward a Delineation of White Collar Offenses. Sociological Inquiry 32, no. 2:160-171. _ The journal of the Alpha Kappa Delta National Sociology Honor Society.

Grygier, Tadeusz; Jones, Howard; and Spencer, John C. (editors) 1965 Criminology in Transition: Essays in Honour of Hermann Mannheim. London: Tavistock. _ See especially “White Collar Crime,” by John C. Spencer.

Hartung, Frank E. 1950 White-collar Offenses in the Wholesale Meat Industry in Detroit. American Journal of Sociology 56:25-34.

Hartung, Frank E. 1953 White Collar Crime: Its Significance for Theory and Practice. Federal Probation 17, no. 2:31-36.

Herling, John 1962 The Great Price Conspiracy: The Story of the Antitrust Violations in the Electrical Industry. Washington: Luce.

Hurwitz, Stephan (1947) 1952 Criminology. London: Allen & Unwin. _ First published in Danish.

Jeffery, Clarence R. 1956 The Structure of American Criminological Thinking. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 46:658-672.

Jones, Howard (1956) 1962 Crime and the Penal System: A Textbook of Criminology. 2d ed. London: University Tutorial Press.

Lane, Robert E. 1953 Why Business Men Violate the Law. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 44:151-165.

Mannheim, Hermann 1946 Criminal Justice and Social Reconstruction. London: Routledge.

Mannheim, Hermann 1965 Comparative Criminology: A Text Book. 2 vols. London: Routledge.

Merton, Robert K. (1938) 1957 Social Structure and Anomie. Pages 131-160 in Robert K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure. Rev. & enl. ed. Glencoe, III.: Free Press. _ First published in the American Sociological Review.

Further Reading (Articles 3)

Merton, Robert K. 1957 Continuities in the Theory of Social Structure and Anomie. Pages 281-386 in Robert K. Merton, SociaZ Theory and Social Structure. Glencoe, III.: Free Press.

Middendorff, Wolf 1959 Soziologie des Verbrechens: Erscheinungen und Wandlungen des asozialen Verhaltens. Düsseldorf (Germany): Diederich.

Morris, Albert 1934 Criminology. New York: Longmans.

Newman, Donald J. 1957 Public Attitudes Toward a Form of White Collar Crime. Social Problems 4:228-232.

Newman, Donald J. 1958 White-collar Crime. Law and Contemporary Problems 23:735-753.

Quinney, Earl R. 1963 Occupational Structure and Criminal Behavior: Prescription Violation by Retail Pharmacists. Social Problems 11:179-185.

Quinney, Earl R. 1964 The Study of White Collar Crime: Toward a Reorientation in Theory and Research. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 55:208-214.

Reckless, Walter C. (1950) 1961 White-collar Crime and Black-marketing. Pages 207-229 in Walter C. Reckless, The Crime Problem. 3d ed. New York: Appleton.

Ross, Edward A. 1907 Sin and Society. Boston: H
oughton Mifflin.

Strafrechtspflege und Strafrechtsreform. 1961 Wiesbaden (Germany): Bundeskriminalamt. _ See especially pages 81-118.

Sutherland, Edwin H. (1925-1951)1956 The Sutherland Papers. Edited by Albert K. Cohen et al. Indiana University Publications, Social Science Series, No. 15. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press.

Sutherland, Edwin H. (1929) 1956 Crime and the Conflict Process. Pages 99-111 in Edwin H. Sutherland, The Sutherland Papers. Edited by Albert K. Cohen et al. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press.

Sutherland, Edwin H. 1940 White-collar Criminality. American Sociological Review 5:1-12.

Sutherland, Edwin H. 1941 Crime and Business. American Academy of Political and Social Science, Annals 217:112-118.

Sutherland, Edwin H. 1945 Is “White Collar Crime” Crime? American Sociological Review 10:132-139.

Sutherland, Edwin H. (1949) 1961 White Collar Crime. New York: Holt.

Tappan, Paul W. 1947 Who Is the Criminal? American Sociological Review 12:96-102.

Vold, George B. 1958 Theoretical Criminology. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

Zirpins, Walter; and Terstegen, Otto 1963 Wirtschaftskriminalität: Erscheinungen und ihre Bekämpfung. Lübeck (Germany): Schmidt-Römhild.

Bensing, Robert C.; and Schroeder, Oliver Jr. 1960 Homicide in an Urban Community. Springfield, III.: Thomas.

Berg, Irwin A.; and Fox, Vernon 1947 Factors in Homicides Committed by 200 Males. Journal of Social Psychology 26:109-119.

Berkowitz, Leonard 1962 Aggression: A Social Psychological Analysis. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Bohannan, Paul (editor) 1960 African Homicide and Suicide. Princeton Univ. Press.

Brearley, Harrington C. 1932 Homicide in the United States. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press.

Buss, Arnold H. 1961 The Psychology of Aggression. New York: Wiley.

Coser, Lewis A. 1962 Violence and the Social Structure. Unpublished manuscript. _ Paper presented at the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Dollard, John et al. 1939 Frustration and Aggression. Yale University Institute of Human Relations. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press.

Durkheim, EMILE (1897) 1951 Suicide: A Study in Sociology. Glencoe, III.: Free Press. _ First published in French.

Endara, J. 1960 Degradazioni e devitalizzazioni nei criminali, rilevabili per mezzo del test di Rorschach. Quaderni di criminologia clinica 1:21-36.

Gillin, John L. 1946 The Wisconsin Prisoner: Studies in Crimogenesis. Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press.

Grünhüut, Max 1952 Murder and the Death Penalty in England. American Academy of Political and Social Science, Annals 284:158-166.

Harlan, H. 1950 Five Hundred Homicides. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 40:736-752.

Henry, Andrew F.; and Short, James F. Jr. 1954 Suicide and Homicide: Some Economic, Sociological, and Psychological Aspects of Aggression. Glencoe, III.: Free Press.

Hentig, Hans von 1948 The Criminal and His Victim. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press.

Lazzari, Renato; Ferracuti, F.; and Rizzo, G. B. 1958 Applicazione della scala di intelligenza Wechsler-Bellevue, Forma 1 su un gruppo di detenuti italiani. Volume 8, pages 449-456 in Convegno Internazionale di Criminologia Clinica, Atti. Rome: The Congress.

Mcneil, Elton B. 1959 Psychology and Aggression. Journal of Conflict Resolution 3:195-293. MORELAND, ROY 1952 The Law of Homicide. Indianapolis, Ind.: Bobbs-Merrill.

Palmer, Stuart 1960 A Study of Murder. New York: Crowell.

Paolella, Alfredo 1960 Resultats au T.A.T. chez des homicides. Pages 669-670 in International Congress on Applied Psychology, Thirteenth, Rome, 1958, Proceedings. London: International Association of Applied Psychology.

Porterfield, Austin L. 1949 Indices of Suicide and Homicide by States and Cities: Some Southern-Non-Southern Contrasts With Implications for Research. American Sociological Review 14:481-490.

Reckless, Walter C. (1950) 1961 The Crime Problem. 3d ed. New York: Appleton.

Robin, Gerald D. 1963 Justifiable Homicide by Police Officers. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 54:225-231.

Schuessler, Karl F.; and Cressey, Donald R. 1950 Personality Characteristics of Criminals. American Journal of Sociology 55:476-484.

Sellin, Thorsten 1959 The Death Penalty: A Report for the Model Penal Code Project of the American Law Institute. Philadelphia: American Law Institute.

Stone, Harold 1956 The TAT Aggressive Content Scale. Journal of Projective Techniques 20:445-452.

Svalastoga, Kaare 1956 Homicide and Social Contact in Denmark. American Journal of Sociology 62:37-41.

United Nations 1961 Demographic Yearbook. New York: United Nations. _ See especially pages 398-471, Table 17, on “Deaths and Death Rates by Cause, and Percentage Medically Certified: 1955-1960.”

U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation 1960 Uniform Crime Reports for the United States. Washington: Government Printing Office. _ See especially page 33, Table 1, on “Index of Crime, United States, 1960” and pages 36-37, Table 2, on “Index of Crime by Geographic Divisions and States, 1959-1960.”

Verkko, Veli K. 1951 Homicides and Suicides in Finland and Their Dependence on National Character. Copenhagen: Gad.

Wertham, Frederic 1949 The Show of Violence. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.

Wolfgang, Marvin E. 1958 Patterns in Criminal Homicide. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.

Wolfgang, Marvin E. 1959 Suicide by Means of Victim-precipitated Homicide. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Psychopathology and Quarterly Review of Psychiatry and Neurology 20:335-349.

Wolfgang, Marvin E.; and Ferracuti, Franco 1962 Subculture of Violence: An Interpretive Analysis of Homicide. International Annals of Criminology [1962]: 52-60.

Wolfgang, Marvin E.; and Strohm, Rolf B. 1956 The Relationship Between Alcohol and Criminal Homicide. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol 17:411-425.

Wood, Arthur L. 1961 Crime and Aggression in Changing Ceylon. American Philosophical Society, Transactions New Series 51, part 8.

Blumstein, Alfred, and Joel Wallman, eds. The Crime Drop in America. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Friedman, Lawrence M. Crime and Punishment in American History. New York: Basic Books, 1993.

Geis, Gilbert, and Robert F. Meier, comps. White-Collar Crime: Offenses in Business and the Professions. New York: Free Press, 1977.

Gray, James P. Why Our Drug Laws Have Failed and What We Can Do About It: A Judicial Indictment of the War on Drugs. Philadelphia: Temple University, 2001.

Robinson, Paul H., and John M. Darley. Justice, Liability, and Blame: Community Views and the Criminal Law. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1995.

Silberman, Charles E. Criminal Violence, Criminal Justice. New York: Random House, 1978.

U.S. Department of Justice. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Report to the Nation on Crime and Justice. 2d ed. 2 vols. Washington, D.C.: Justice Statistics Clearinghouse, 1988.

Zimring, Franklin E., and Gordon Hawkins. Crime Is Not the Problem: Lethal Violence in America. New York: Oxford University, 1997.

LarryYackle

Brownstein, H. H. (2000). The Social Reality of Violence and Violent Crime. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Federal Bureau of Investigation (2000). Uniform Crime Reports, 1999. Washington, DC: United States Department of Justice. Available at http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/htm.

Klaus, P. A. (1994). The Costs of Crime to Victims. Bureau of Justice Statistics Crime Data Brief. Annapolis Junction, MD: BJS Clearinghouse.

Bureau of Justice Statistics (1998). National Crime Victimization Survey. Washington, DC: BJS.

Schmalleger, F. (2001). Criminal Justice Today. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentic
e Hall.

Crimes by Eugene Neighborhood, The Register Guard (Eugene, OR); December 22, 2001

Crime Watch, The Register Guard (Eugene, OR); January 26, 2002

Crime Fears and Phobias, Psychiatry, Psychology and Law; April 1, 2004; Clark, Julie

Crime Levels in Town on the Rise Again after August Fall ; CRIME MAPPING: Police Make Burglaries Their Main Priority at the Moment, Loughborough Echo; November 9, 2012; Jarram, Matt

Crime Time: The Fear, The Facts; How the Sensationalism Got Ahead of the Stats, The Washington Post; January 30, 1994; Richard Morin

Crime on the run in Boston’s suburbs Overall rate declines 11%; greatest drop is reported in property category, The Boston Globe (Boston, MA); May 16, 1993; Sean P. Murphy, Globe Staff

CRIME HERE SOARS FAR ABOVE U.S. RATE FBI RELEASES FIVE-YEAR DATA, The Buffalo News (Buffalo, NY); October 3, 1993; JERRY ZREMSKI – News Washington Bureau

CRIME RATE DROPS 2.8 PERCENT IN WASHINGTON, The Columbian (Vancouver, WA); October 30, 2001; REBECCA COOK, Associated Press writer

Crime Statistics Questioned, NPR Morning Edition; November 23, 1998; Eric Westervelt, Bob Edwards

CRIME CAVEATS STRESSED RATES RISE, BUT METHODS LEAD TO MIXED MESSAGES, The Boston Globe (Boston, MA); November 9, 2003; Brenda J. Buote, Globe Staff

Crime Mapping Statistics Register Lowest Level of Crime since Launch ; DROP: ‘We Are Putting in a Lot of Work around Crime Reduction and Anti-Social Behaviour’, Loughborough Echo; October 5, 2012; Jarram, Matt

CRIME SOARS; Muggings Up 28pc and Guess Where It’s Worst …Drug-Infested Lambeth, Daily Mail (London); July 12, 2002; Hickley, Matthew;

CRIME DROPS IN EVERY CATEGORY DENVER OFFICIALS REPORT 8.4% DIP, HAIL POLICE-COMMUNITY COOPERATION.(Local), Rocky Mountain News (Denver, CO); June 11, 1999; Lindsay, Sue

CRIME AND JUSTICE SURVEY 2009-10., States News Service; November 2, 2010

Crime – and Statistics, The Birmingham Post (England); October 16, 1999; Wilson, David

CRIME AT NEARLY 20-YEAR LOW THE VIRGINIA BEACH CRIME RATE FOR 1998 IS AT THE LOWEST POINT SINCE 1979, AND JUVENILE CRIME MAY HAVE LEVELED OFF, ANALYST SAYS. VIRGINIA BEACH TREND CONSISTENT WITH NATION’S.(LOCAL), The Virginian-Pilot (Norfolk, VA); March 2, 1999; Mcglone, Tim

CRIME STUDY WARNS OF TEEN `WOLF PACKS’.(Front), The Capital Times; January 6, 1996

Crime falls in Naperville; drugs blamed for increase in rapes, The Sun – Naperville (IL); July 15, 2001; Meg Dedolph

CRIMES UP IN LANCASTER, DOWN IN PALMDALE.(News), Daily News (Los Angeles, CA); April 23, 2006

Crimes against Women: Increasing the Number of Policewomen May Not Help, Mint; July 28, 2014

Paolella, Alfredo 1960 Resultats au T.A.T. chez des homicides. Pages 669-670 in International Congress on Applied Psychology, Thirteenth, Rome, 1958, Proceedings. London: International Association of Applied Psychology.

Porterfield, Austin L. 1949 Indices of Suicide and Homicide by States and Cities: Some Southern-Non-Southern Contrasts With Implications for Research. American Sociological Review 14:481-490.

Reckless, Walter C. (1950) 1961 The Crime Problem. 3d ed. New York: Appleton.

Robin, Gerald D. 1963 Justifiable Homicide by Police Officers. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 54:225-231.

Schuessler, Karl F.; and Cressey, Donald R. 1950 Personality Characteristics of Criminals. American Journal of Sociology 55:476-484.

Sellin, Thorsten 1959 The Death Penalty: A Report for the Model Penal Code Project of the American Law Institute. Philadelphia: American Law Institute.

Stone, Harold 1956 The TAT Aggressive Content Scale. Journal of Projective Techniques 20:445-452.

Svalastoga, Kaare 1956 Homicide and Social Contact in Denmark. American Journal of Sociology 62:37-41.

United Nations 1961 Demographic Yearbook. New York: United Nations. _ See especially pages 398-471, Table 17, on “Deaths and Death Rates by Cause, and Percentage Medically Certified: 1955-1960.”

U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation 1960 Uniform Crime Reports for the United States. Washington: Government Printing Office. _ See especially page 33, Table 1, on “Index of Crime, United States, 1960” and pages 36-37, Table 2, on “Index of Crime by Geographic Divisions and States, 1959-1960.”

Verkko, Veli K. 1951 Homicides and Suicides in Finland and Their Dependence on National Character. Copenhagen: Gad.

Wertham, Frederic 1949 The Show of Violence. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.

Wolfgang, Marvin E. 1958 Patterns in Criminal Homicide. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.

Wolfgang, Marvin E. 1959 Suicide by Means of Victim-precipitated Homicide. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Psychopathology and Quarterly Review of Psychiatry and Neurology 20:335-349.

Wolfgang, Marvin E.; and Ferracuti, Franco 1962 Subculture of Violence: An Interpretive Analysis of Homicide. International Annals of Criminology [1962]: 52-60.

Wolfgang, Marvin E.; and Strohm, Rolf B. 1956 The Relationship Between Alcohol and Criminal Homicide. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol 17:411-425.

Wood, Arthur L. 1961 Crime and Aggression in Changing Ceylon. American Philosophical Society, Transactions New Series 51, part 8.

Blumstein, Alfred, and Joel Wallman, eds. The Crime Drop in America. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Friedman, Lawrence M. Crime and Punishment in American History. New York: Basic Books, 1993.

Geis, Gilbert, and Robert F. Meier, comps. White-Collar Crime: Offenses in Business and the Professions. New York: Free Press, 1977.

Gray, James P. Why Our Drug Laws Have Failed and What We Can Do About It: A Judicial Indictment of the War on Drugs. Philadelphia: Temple University, 2001.

Robinson, Paul H., and John M. Darley. Justice, Liability, and Blame: Community Views and the Criminal Law. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1995.

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Zimring, Franklin E., and Gordon Hawkins. Crime Is Not the Problem: Lethal Violence in America. New York: Oxford University, 1997.

LarryYackle

Brownstein, H. H. (2000). The Social Reality of Violence and Violent Crime. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

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Crime Watch, The Register Guard (Eugene, OR); January 26, 2002

Crime Fears and Phobias, Psychiatry, Psychology and Law; April 1, 2004; Clark, Julie

Crime Levels in Town on the Rise Again after August Fall ; CRIME MAPPING: Police Make Burglaries Their Main Priority at the Moment, Loughborough Echo; November 9, 2012; Jarram, Matt

Crime Time: The Fear, The Facts; How the Sensationalism Got Ahead of the Stats, The Washington Post; January 30, 1994; Richard Morin

Crime on the run in Boston’s suburbs Overall rate declines 11%; greatest drop is reported in property category, The Boston Globe (Boston, MA); May 16, 1993; Sean P. Murphy, Globe Staff

CRIME HERE SOARS FAR ABOVE U.S. RATE FBI RELEASES FIVE-Y
EAR DATA, The Buffalo News (Buffalo, NY); October 3, 1993; JERRY ZREMSKI – News Washington Bureau

CRIME RATE DROPS 2.8 PERCENT IN WASHINGTON, The Columbian (Vancouver, WA); October 30, 2001; REBECCA COOK, Associated Press writer

Crime Statistics Questioned, NPR Morning Edition; November 23, 1998; Eric Westervelt, Bob Edwards

CRIME CAVEATS STRESSED RATES RISE, BUT METHODS LEAD TO MIXED MESSAGES, The Boston Globe (Boston, MA); November 9, 2003; Brenda J. Buote, Globe Staff

Crime Mapping Statistics Register Lowest Level of Crime since Launch ; DROP: ‘We Are Putting in a Lot of Work around Crime Reduction and Anti-Social Behaviour’, Loughborough Echo; October 5, 2012; Jarram, Matt

CRIME SOARS; Muggings Up 28pc and Guess Where It’s Worst …Drug-Infested Lambeth, Daily Mail (London); July 12, 2002; Hickley, Matthew;

CRIME DROPS IN EVERY CATEGORY DENVER OFFICIALS REPORT 8.4% DIP, HAIL POLICE-COMMUNITY COOPERATION.(Local), Rocky Mountain News (Denver, CO); June 11, 1999; Lindsay, Sue

CRIME AND JUSTICE SURVEY 2009-10., States News Service; November 2, 2010

Crime – and Statistics, The Birmingham Post (England); October 16, 1999; Wilson, David

CRIME AT NEARLY 20-YEAR LOW THE VIRGINIA BEACH CRIME RATE FOR 1998 IS AT THE LOWEST POINT SINCE 1979, AND JUVENILE CRIME MAY HAVE LEVELED OFF, ANALYST SAYS. VIRGINIA BEACH TREND CONSISTENT WITH NATION’S.(LOCAL), The Virginian-Pilot (Norfolk, VA); March 2, 1999; Mcglone, Tim

CRIME STUDY WARNS OF TEEN `WOLF PACKS’.(Front), The Capital Times; January 6, 1996

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Crimes against Women: Increasing the Number of Policewomen May Not Help, Mint; July 28, 2014

General Theory of Crime in relation to Crime and Race

General Theory of Crime is included in the Encyclopedia of Race and Crime (1), beginning with: In 1990, A General Theory of Crime by Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi was published. The theory described in this book is often thought of as a social control theory with its theoretical foundation in both earlier social bonding theory and learning theory. At its core, the general theory of crime asserts that crime is committed because individuals have no self-control. In other words, if an individual, through processes of social bonding and learning, does not come to behave within the bounds of social norms, this means that he or she has no self-control. When testing the general theory of crime, researchers most frequently include race/ethnicity as either a key independent variable or, along with other demographic variables such as gender, as a control variable.

Basic Meaning of Crime

Crime means: an action in violation of constitution, statues, or ordinances, e.g., treason, felony, misdemeanor.

Resources

Notes and References

1. Entry about General Theory of Crime in the Encyclopedia of Race and Crime

See Also

Racialization of Crime in relation to Crime and Race

Racialization of Crime is included in the Encyclopedia of Race and Crime (1), beginning with: For a variety of reasons, the association of race with crime and crime according to race has been an enduring feature of American culture. In fact, race-based assumptions about crime have become so ingrained in public consciousness that the racial identity of suspects need not be mentioned in order for race to be conjured along with crime. This is particularly true for African Americans, whose race seems to be the most closely related to crime in the minds of many Americans. The development of this inextricable linkage between race and crime is referred to as the racialization of crime and has influenced attitudes about crime among the public and functioned as a subtle rationale for both official and unofficial policies and practices that perpetuate differential treatment by criminal justice officials.

Basic Meaning of Crime

Crime means: an action in violation of constitution, statues, or ordinances, e.g., treason, felony, misdemeanor.

Resources

Notes and References

1. Entry about Racialization of Crime in the Encyclopedia of Race and Crime

See Also

Strain Theory in relation to Crime and Race

Strain Theory is included in the Encyclopedia of Race and Crime (1), beginning with: Strain theory proposes that socially generated pressure, and the negative emotions that flow from such pressure, drives people to commit crime. Researchers’ attention to this pressure, or strain, evokes more than 60 years of scholarship that tracks Robert Merton in the 1930s, Albert Cohen in the 1950s, Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin in the 1960s, and Robert Agnew in the 1980s to 2000s. Although differing in detail, each of these traditions centers on a disparity between shared ambitions and failure in realizing those ambitions as a source of crime among disadvantaged groups. Each argues that we aspire to achieve some manner of success but that segments of the population are prevented from doing so through legal channels, such as a good job or quality education.

Basic Meaning of Crime

Crime means: an action in violation of constitution, statues, or ordinances, e.g., treason, felony, misdemeanor.

Resources

Notes and References

1. Entry about Strain Theory in the Encyclopedia of Race and Crime

See Also

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) in the Criminal Justice System

This section covers the topics below related with Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED):

Crime Prevention

Crime in the Criminal Justice System

Basic Meaning of Crime

Crime means: an action in violation of constitution, statues, or ordinances, e.g., treason, felony, misdemeanor.

Resources

See Also

• Crime Prevention